Diamond

Everyone knows that diamonds are one of the most brilliant gems anywhere. But did you know that diamonds were used for thousands of years before anyone thought of cutting them to reveal their brilliance?

In fact, it seems that the ancient Romans wore them more for their powers than for their beauty. Diamonds were worshipped in India as far back as 800 B.C.E., and India was probably also the first country to supply these cherished stones.

Pliny the Elder wrote that diamonds were known only to kings. But as late as the thirteenth century, there were hardly even any kings who owned diamonds, although they did try not to let anyone else wear them. Louis IX of France (1214-1270) declared them forbidden to any woman, including queens and princesses. These precious gems became more common among royalty during the second half of the fifteenth century which is when Hapsburg Emperor Maximilian I presented Mary of Burgundy with what seems to have been the world's first diamond engagement ring. At that time diamonds were still being worn for their powers. Queen Elizabeth I received a diamond to protect her from the plague.

However, Louis XIV of France (1638-1715), the Sun King, collected diamonds for their beauty. It was Jean Batiste Tavernier, a jeweler, merchant and traveler, who was responsible for bringing diamonds to Louis' elaborate court. Tavernier traveled to the Indian diamond mines six times, and after each trip he brought back amazing finds. A century later, it wasn't only kings who were wearing diamonds, but it was definitely only the very wealthy who could afford them.

At that same time the diamond supply in India was thinning out, but by then diamonds had already been discovered in Brazil. And when that supply seemed to be petering out, the diamond rush in South Africa was beginning. Interestingly, the very first South African diamond was found near the Orange river in 1866 by a little boy, the young son of a farmer by the name of Erasmus Jacobs. It was a while before the marble-sized stone was identified as a diamond, and then it took another few discoveries before the world was certain that diamond fields did exist in South Africa.

After the De Beer brothers discovered finds on their farm in 1871, the famous Kimberley mine opened to produce one of the richest diamond yields ever found. De Beers formed a corporation in 1888, and today, more than 100 years later, this corporation has become a monopoly that controls 80 percent of the diamond wholesale market.

In the twentieth century many more diamond deposits were found all over the world including Africa, Russia, China and Australia. So it's not surprising that it's no longer only royalty or the wealthy elite who are purchasing diamonds. The average person today can realistically hope to acquire at least a diamond or two for himself.

There's no question that diamonds are the "king of gems." The word diamond stems from the Greek adamas that comes from the root of "unconquerable" or "I conquer." Which definitely suits a stone that is the hardest mineral on earth and almost indestructible.

The sparkling, enchanting world of diamonds contains many, many famous diamonds of all sizes, shapes and colors. Here is a small list which is really just the tip of the iceberg:

The first thing you should probably know about the Hope diamond is its deep blue color. This gem goes back at least as far as the seventeenth century although it only got its name two centuries later when it was bought by a banker called Hope. But what seems to be most intriguing about this world-renowned gem is the ill luck that seemed to follow everyone who owned it.

Let's go back to the beginning. Jean Batiste Tavernier was on his sixth trip to India when a native slave approached him secretively and showed him a large blue stone. When Tavernier realized that it was not a sapphire but a rare blue diamond, he bought it and smuggled it to Paris. Louis XIV bought the 112 carat crystal and had it cut into a heart-shaped stone weighing 67.50 carats that became known as the "French Blue."

While Louis XIV the Sun King made his court the grandest in the world, he suffered many misfortunes. And Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette who inherited the stone were beheaded on the guillotine. The stone was then stolen from the treasury in the chaotic anarchy of the French revolution.

Here follows a question mark as to what happened to the stone after that. Some say it was sold in Spain and cut into three smaller stones. Others claim it came into the possession of King George IV of England but was then sold after his death to repay debts. In any case the next time this stone was heard of was in 1830 in London when it was bought by banker Henry Phillip Hope, after whom the stone is named.

The Hope family all died in poverty, and the diamond passed on to other owners who also suffered tragedies until it was purchased by Turkish sultan Abdul Hamid II who forced his subjects to pay the $450,000 he needed to pay for it. In the end he was dethroned, and Mrs. Evelyn Walsh McLean of Washington D.C. bought it in 1911. Soon after, her family endured a chain of catastrophes that ended with her losing all her money and committing suicide in 1947.

That was the last private owner of this infamous 44 carat stone. Today you can see it in the Smithsonian Museum in Washington D.C., surrounded by sixteen white diamonds and set as a pendant that hangs on a chain of 45 white diamonds.

Another famous diamond with a long history is the Koh-i-noor diamond that goes back at least as far as 1304 when it was reportedly owned by the Rajah of Malwa. This gem was much coveted, and two centuries later it was found in the hands of the Mogul dynasty. When Nadir Shah of Persia invaded Delhi, he was intent on making this stone his own. But after turning over the city, he still could not find it.

Then he was told that the Mogul emperor had hidden the gem in his turban. The clever Shah invited the captive emperor to a feast and suggested that the two rulers exchange turbans, a well known Oriental gesture of friendship and brotherhood. Of course, the emperor could not refuse; it would have too dangerous an insult to his conquering guest.

Later when the Shah was alone, he unwrapped the turban, and the brilliant diamond tumbled out. According to the legend, the Shah then cried out, "Koh-i-Noor!" which means mountain of light. And that was how the diamond got its name.

But the story does not end there. The Shah, of course, took the jewel back with him to Persia, but years later during the break-up of the Persian empire, the diamond ended up returning to India, to the Punjab region. When the British annexed that area in 1849, the stone was taken by the British East India company. They in turn presented it to Queen Victoria who put it up for public viewing in London.

After three years it was recut to better show off its brilliance. That's how the 186 carat stone went down to 108.93 carats. In 1853 Queen Victoria had it mounted in a tiara along with 2000 other diamonds. In 1911 it became the center stone of a new crown made for Queen Mary's coronation. Its last transition was to the crown made for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. Today you can view it in the Tower of London where after centuries of moving around, this world-famous diamond has finally found its rest.

The most recent, largest cut diamond is the Centenary diamond. It got its name because it was discovered just before the hundredth anniversary of the De Beers' corporation in 1988. Since the 599 carat stone had an unusually strange shape, it took a lot of deliberation and discussion to decide who would be the one to cut it. At last De Beers chose Gabi Tolkowsky, one of the world's most famous cutters. The first part of the job was studying every inch of the stone to see what cutting it would involve. Then came the big project, the actual cutting that Tolkowsky decided to do by hand.

It took almost three years for the stone to be cut and then polished, during which it went down to 273 carats, still an impressive size for a top-cut, flawless diamond.

One hundred years earlier, just after the De Beer brothers formed what would become the famous diamond monopoly, the company had discovered its first major find, a stone of 428.5 carats. Polishing reduced it to 228.5 carats, and crowds lined up to see it at the Paris exhibition.

The largest diamond ever discovered, the Cullinan diamond, takes us back to the beginning of the twentieth century when a stone weighing 3,106 carats was found. This was the diamond that was so large no one knew what to do with it. At last the Transvaal government bought it for $800,000 - an enormous amount of money at that time - and presented it to King Edward VII of England for his 66th birthday. He didn't know what to do with it either. At last it was decided to cut it into a few stones. The two largest, Cullinan I (530.20 carats) and Cullinan II (317.40 carats), settled into their roles as part of the British crown jewels.

Because diamonds are the hardest gems around, you need to make sure your diamond doesn't scratch any other stones you may own. And don't forget that diamonds can also scratch each other. You can clean your diamond in a number of ways including ultrasonic cleaners, jewelry cleaners and soapy water solutions. There's even a method for soaking diamonds in a glass of vodka!

 

Among its many healing qualities diamonds are believed to strengthen the eyes, kidneys and reproductive organs. It is good for breathing, digestion and weak bones. It is also supposed to protect against disease.

Alexandrite

T he first miners to see this gem must have thought their eyes were playing tricks on them. At first they were sure they had discovered a green stone, but then when they studied their find in candlelight it looked red.

What was going on?

No, it was nothing mysterious or supernatural. Or maybe it was. Nature was showing off one of her countless wonders - a color-changing stone.

By the early 1830s the Russian mines in the Ural mountains were very active. And then one day, along with the other precious gems being dug out of the mines near the Tokovaya river, a new stone - that had never been seen before anywhere in the world - was discovered.

Leading the discovery team was Nils Gustaf Nordenskiold, the famous Finnish mineralogist who was working for Russian Czar Nicholas I. Since this new gem was reportedly found on the day that the czar's son, the future Czar Alexander II, came of age, Nordenskiold suggested it be named in his honor. The new gem, alexandrite, also happened to fit right in with the official colors of Mother Russia, green and red.

Since alexandrite is extremely rare, it has become one of the most expensive gems in the world. And its greatest appeal, not to mention value, is the way it changes colors. In order to be considered a true alexandrite, the stone must undergo a significant change (a high quality stone will have over 90% change) from a grayish, bluish, greenish shade in daylight or fluorescent light to a brownish, reddish, purplish shade in artificial yellow light.

Alexandrite jewelry is definitely not common, but there were numerous pieces made during the late nineteenth to early twentieth century. Russian jewelers loved to use it, and Tiffany's master gemologist George F. Kunz promoted it all over the U.S. Alexandrites were also sometimes seen in Victorian jewelry.

One of the rarest and most valuable kind of alexandrite is alexandrite cat's eye. Here, in addition to the stone's fascinating color changing, there is also a silvery line in the center of the crystal made of microscopic inclusions. As this band of light moves across the stone, it looks strikingly like a cat's eye opening and closing.

Because alexandrite is so rare, even very small stones can sell for thousands of dollars a carat. Any faceted gem larger than two carats is considered truly large.

The largest faceted alexandrite weighs 66 carats and can be viewed in the Smithsonian Museum in Washington D.C. There is a bigger rough crystal found in Sri Lanka that weighs 1876 carats.

Although alexandrites are durable stones, they still need to be protected from scratches, blows, harsh chemicals and extreme temperatures. When it comes to cleaning them, ultrasonic cleaners and steamers are considered safe, but there are many jewelers who prefer cleaning solutions like commercial jewelry cleaner or simple warm, soapy water solutions and a soft brush. They feel that ultrasonic cleaners should never be used, no matter how resilient the stone.

Alexandrites are believed to help treat disorders of the nervous system, spleen and pancreas (great for diabetics) as well as swollen lymph nodes. They are even recommended to supplement conventional leukemia treatment.

Alexandrites are also all about a healthy emotional state. They are said to stimulate confidence, increasing self-esteem. Which naturally leads to happiness and success.

In addition, this stone that has enchanted gem lovers all over the world with its unique characteristics is believed to intensify all loving feelings.

World of Gemstones

Introduction

Do you know who received the world's first diamond engagement ring - and when? Or which gem Catherine the Great of Russia loved so much that she had an entire room made of it? Or which stone can be found in only one U.S. state?

Are you aware that diamonds were first worn for their powers rather than for their beauty? And that diamonds and sapphires come in almost every color? And that that there are gems more valuable than diamonds?

Have you heard of color-changing gems? Star gems? Cat's eye gems?

This handbook has been compiled to give you all this information - and much more. In it you will discover a fascinating world - the world of gemstones.

You've surely heard about the more famous gemstones like diamonds, sapphires and rubies, here you can learn about many, many more. Also, certain gemstone types of special interest (like green sapphires and pink diamonds) have been listed separately so they can get the special attention they deserve.

But no matter which stone we're talking about, each write up gives you some interesting and important facts. It might be the history of a gem or how it was discovered or the source of its name. You may learn fascinating facts about specific specimens of a stone or read about its relationship with famous, world monarchs. You may discover in what forms the stone can be found and also interesting physical properties it may display. You will gain necessary information like tips on caring for specific gems.

At the end of each write up, you will find a data chart with very specific information for each stone. The chart is divided into two parts. The first tells you about the gem's physical characteristics, like its color, hardness and where in the world it is located.

Here are terms you may want to understand before you look them up on individual gem charts:

Color - This simply tells you the various color hues of a gem.

Shape - Shape should not be confused with cut. Shape is simply the outline of the stone, what shape it has when you look at it face up. For example, it may have a round, oval, pear, triangle, rectangle or cushion shape. There are also fancier shapes like heart, marquise, baguette etc.

Cut - Cut is something much deeper than shape. It is the way in which the stone is faceted to make the stone appear as reflective and sparkling as possible. It refers to the way flat surfaces are cut into the stone.

Generally there is the cabochon cut and three basic faceted cuts. The cabochon is the oldest cut there is. The stone is polished to form a flat base and a smooth, round, domed surface. The three main faceted cuts are: brilliant, step or emerald, and mixed. In a brilliant cut, many, many facets are cut into the stone. In a step or emerald cut, the top of the stone is usually one large, flat and rectangular or square face and the edges are faceted. The mixed cut is a combination of the first two. This usually means that the top of the stone gets a brilliant cut, while the pavilion - the lower part of the stone - gets a step cut. And then there are also special or fancy cuts.

Hardness - Gem hardness is measured on Moh's scale. Viennese mineralogist, Friedrich Moh, developed a scale that classifies a mineral's hardness in comparison with other minerals. It ranges from 1 to 10, with 1 ranking softest (like talc) and 10 ranking hardest (like diamond).

Crystal System - Most gemstones are minerals, and most minerals grow in specific crystal forms. This means they display regular, geometric patterns of atoms, ions and molecules. This inner pattern affects the crystal's physical properties like its outer shape, hardness, cleavage, fracture, density and more. It is therefore helpful in identifying minerals.

These crystal forms are classified into seven different groups or systems: cubic, tetragonal, hexagonal, trigonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic and triclinic. There are also amorphous stones, stones with very weak or no crystal structure.

Refractive Index - When light hits the surface of a polished gem, some light is reflected but most of it is absorbed by the stone. And because the gem has a different density than the air, when the light rays reach the stone, they slow down and are bent - or refracted.

The refractive index measures the amount of refraction, how slanted the light rays become. Since the amount of refraction is the same in specific gemstone types, measuring the refractive index is one way of identifying a gem.

How do we get the refractive index number? Well, you can define refractive index as the relationship between the speed of light in air and the speed of light when it hits the stone. (When the light rays hit the stone, they move a little slower.) Divide these two numbers, and there you have it - the refractive index.

Birefringence - This technical-sounding word is related to refractive index. You see, when you look at a gem through a refractometer - the machine that measures refractive index - some gems show single refraction and some show double refraction. Single refraction means you can see one single shadow edge, while minerals that are doubly refractive show the light ray splitting into two so you can see two shadow edges.

You get the birefringence number by finding the difference between the refractive indexes of the two light rays. Gems that are singly refractive don't have birefringence. (They can't because since they show only one shadow edge, you cannot get two refractive index numbers for them.)

Pleochroism - A gem is pleochroic if it displays one color when you look at it from one direction and another color (sometimes even a few colors) when you look at it from a different direction. Minerals of the cubic crystal system and amorphous minerals show only one color, so they are not pleochroic. Tetragonal, hexagonal and trigonal show two colors (so you can say they are dichroic), and orthorhombic, monoclinic or triclinic can show three colors (which makes them known as trichroic).

Cleavage - Many gemstones can be easily split or cleaved along certain flat planes (because of their internal atomic structure). Depending on how easy it is to cleave a crystal, the stone will be considered to have perfect, good or imperfect cleavage. Some gems cannot be cleaved at all, so you would say they have no cleavage, only fracture.

Fracture - As opposed to cleavage, you get a stone's fracture by just breaking it anywhere. The broken edges that result can be described as conchoidal (where the edges look curved, rippling, shell-like), uneven, smooth, fibrous, splintery or grainy.

Density - You get a stone's density or specific gravity by dividing the weight of the gemstone by the weight of an equal amount of water.

Chemical Composition - This tells you what minerals the stone is made of.

Transparency - This tells you whether the stone appears transparent, translucent or opaque

Luster - Luster describes the kind of surface shine that a gem has, and this is determined by the way light is reflected from its surface. One thing luster depends on is how much it can be polished. The harder a stone is, the more it can be polished - and the more lustrous it can be.

Most gemstones have a glasslike or vitreous luster. Some, like diamonds, have an even more brilliant luster known as an adamantine luster. Gemstones can also have resinous, waxy, greasy, silky, pearly lusters. A stone that reflects very little light would be called earthy or dull.

Occurrence - This tells you where in the world the gem can be found.

The second part of the gemstone data chart tells you what month, zodiac sign, planet, anniversary year, chakra, day, hour and number the stone corresponds to.

If you're wondering what chakras are, according to ancient Eastern tradition, they are specific points (chakra is the Sanskrit word for wheel) of energy located throughout the body that correlate to certain nerve and endocrine centers. They are also associated with different colors and character traits.

It is believed that when the chakras are not aligned properly, the body develops all kinds of disorders like physical illness and mental stress. Gems of different colors are believed to have balancing, healing effects on corresponding chakras. For example, the fourth chakra is the heart chakra. It represents the heart, circulatory system, lungs, shoulder and upper back. Its parallel color is either green or pink, and it is said to help you love yourself and others. Therefore emeralds and green and pink tourmalines are some of the gemstones recommended for strengthening this chakra.

DashBoard FX® Pro - Your Ultimate Forex Trading Companion

DashBoard FX Pro is an easy-to-use yet powerful Forex siganls and analysis tool that provides subscribers with realtime buy/sell trade signals for 20 currency pairs and visual market analysis indicators.

Forex Signals for 20 Currency Pairs

DashBoard FX Pro features real-time forex signals with precise Entry, Target and Stop loss points for 20 of the most widely traded currency pairs.

The backbone of DashBoard FX Pro is our cutting-edge proprietary trading system, which is continually refined and optimized to adapt to the ever-changing market conditions.

The system scans the market 24 hours a day for potentially profitable short-term, medium-term and long-term trading opportunites. On average the system generates approximately 20-40 signals per day (combined for all currency pairs and trading styles).

Easy-To-Use & Innovative Visual Technical Indicators

The Visual Market Indicators are unique to DashBoard FX Pro which offer users the ability to identify overall trend direction, strength, volatility, speed and trading range with a just quick glance!

DashBoard FX Pro uses sophisticated proprietary algorithms to derive these indicators that can be used to find potential trading opportunities or to simply confirm incoming signals. Traders can also perform inter-market analysis by comparing analytics across available pairs. The Visual Indicators included are:

Trend - Shows the overall trend in four time intervals; monthly, weekly, daily, and hourly. This unique trading utensil can benefit all types of traders from Scalpers, Day Traders, Swing Traders, or Position Traders.

Strength - Used in conjuction with the trend indicator to gauge the force of the overall trend in a trending market, or to identify the tops and bottoms in a range-bound market.

Volatility - A statistical measure of the tendency of a market or pair to rise or fall sharply within a short period of time. This indication is used well in conjunction with other variables to determine strength of price action as well as to effectively manage market risk. Using this indicator, a subscriber can instantly assess how fast or uncertain the market is moving.

Speedometer - Measures price change velocity and acceleration as well as the amount of activity in a particular currency pair. The Speedometer can help identify currency pairs that may be experiencing big price changes in short-term trends without constantly having to look at charts or quotes to locate these movements.

Range - Displays the trading range for a currency pair within a certain timeframe, depending on user preferences.

Integrated Enhanced Charting

Real-time japanese candlestick charts let you quickly get an overview of the currencies in various different timeframes.

The charting interface is designed to be intuitive and easy-to-use, featuring one click access to historical price data for more than ten years!

Customizable RSS News Feeds

Stay abreast of the market-moving fundamentals with the integrated RSS News Feeds. In addition to some of the best news sources hand picked by our analysts, subscibers have the ability to add their own favorite sources to the list.

Instant Alerts on Screen, via Email, SMS, and IMs

In addition to visual and audio notifications on the screen, subscribers can choose to receive forex signal alerts via Email, Text Message (SMS) to their mobile phone, and Instant Messenger (AIM, ICQ, MSN, Yahoo).

This service is available free of charge to all subscribers around the world.

Other Features & Tools

•Real-time Quotes - Get up-to-the-second updates of exchange rates. Select only the pairs you want to monitor.

•Signals & Analytics for 3 Trading Styles - Day Trader, Swing Trader and Position Trader

•Market Status Panel - Displays the opening and closing time of the major global currency markets in subscribers local time

•Price Alerts - Setup custom alerts to be notified about when a currency is trading above or below a trigger price

•World Clocks - Customizable international clocks make life easy when dealing with different time zones in this global market

 

DOWNLOAD AT http://www.fxuniversal.com/signals/index.html

3 Questions to Help Find the Best Forex System

When we trade currencies we are always hoping to find the best forex system, the perfect system that will work for us virtually on autopilot with huge profits and no losing trades. The sad truth is that it does not exist. If it did everybody would be using it and you would not find so many hundreds of different systems on the internet. So that is the bad news.

The good news is that even if there is no perfect currency trading system, there are plenty of good ones. You just have to accept that you may need to do some searching and tweaking in order to find the system that is best for you. Here are 3 questions to consider when you are looking for your forex system.

1. Does It Fit With Your Style?

Every trader has slightly different requirements and so what is the best system for you, might not be the best for me. So before acting on another person's recommendation, consider whether what they propose would suit you.

Consider the style of the system. Is it a short term system involving scalping or day trading? These can be very profitable if you have the time to stay online to trade currencies at the right times, and if you cope well with stress. But if you have a day job or tend to make bad decisions under pressure, you will be better off with a system that follows longer term trends so that you do not have to be checking the market all of the time.

2. Does It Have A High Success Rate?

Unless you are a very experienced trader, it is best to choose a system with a high rate of winning trades (over 75% minimum). Of course this does not guarantee higher profitability. A system that has bigger, less frequent wins could make as much in the long term. However, a system with a high success rate will not suffer so many runs of several losses in a row.

The importance of this is psychological. It can be very discouraging to see 5 or 6 losing trades in a row, or have your balance gradually eaten down by a long run of losers with only occasional wins. This type of scenario is much more likely when you go with a system with a lower success rate, and it can be a killer for many traders. You lose confidence in yourself and in the system, and begin to trade erratically, so that when the upturn comes you are no longer following the system strictly enough to benefit. So choose a system that will support a positive mindset.

3. Is It Clearly Explained?

If you are buying a system, you should expect to receive clear step by step training in how to implement it. This may be in the form of an ebook or videos or both. If the system is free, then of course you cannot expect so much. However, you still need to be sure that you have understood what you are being asked to do.

In some cases you might pick up a few tips on a forum about some new system that is said to work perfectly but in fact you can never get the exact information you need to put it into practice. It is better to pay a few dollars so that you can trade currencies with a system that you understand and have faith in.

Saiful-Maluk

Saiful-Maluk is one of the most beautiful lakes I have ever seen. Its five mile away from Naran at height of 10,500 feet (3200.40 meters) above sea level. This lake is easily accessible by jeep or by trekking. In case you wanna trekk, one needs around two hours. I also opted for trekking and it was fun. There is a huge glacier on the way , crossing its also fun.

Talking about the lake, its almost impossible to describe the beauty. I can never forget those moments that I spent at lake Saiful-Maluk. I never wanted to come back from this beautiful lake but thunderstorm with heavy rain forced me to go back early. I would suggest you to take meals along with you and go to lake in morning. You should spend good time there and have meals along the lake.

The Queen of the Mountains "Malka Purbat" peak at height of 17,360 feet (5291.33 meters) is standing in the east and looking at her image in the mirror of Lake Saiful Maluk. Saiful Maluk is blue water lake in shape of bowl. Water from surrounding glaciers, lakes, and peaks fallsin this lovely lake.Boating facility is available but not recommended at all because this lake is so deep that so far its depth could not be measured. There is no emergency equipment availale so don't take the risk!

There are few camping sites available and I would strongly recommend you to camp here beacuse Saiful-Maluk really deserves it. There are small huts and shops near lake selling items you may need.

Elders of the area would tell you the story of Prince Saiful-Maluk from Eygpt who fell in love with a fairy. Although there might not be enough snow, few glaciers and size of lake shrinking BUT its still very blue and beautiful.

Lake Saif ul Muluk is the must see activity in naran. It takes around about 3 hours on foot to travel to the lake. You can also hire jeeps or horses if you dont feel like walking to it. you have to cross a glacier on the way to the lake.The whole path is very beautiful and its recommended that you walk to it. In this way you will get to appreciate the captivating beauty on the way.

It was nearly noon when we reached Saif Ul Malook Lake; it was really an awesome place. All the anecdotes we have heard about that lake just seemed to be true as it looks like a part of heaven. People usually come here before sunrise because it is at that time, when the surrounding mountain sees their image in the lake. It is said that the scene is really worth all the pain that one gets in reaching at that place. A guide told me that normally the foreigners come to watch that scene. It is too cold at the lake that one has to be overtly precaution in wearing warm clothes. The water at the lake is too cold that no body can stand it for more than 1 minute. Though all of us tried to have a bet with the guide but after around 30 seconds when our mind started losing our body we have to give up the very idea. May be next time we would have a better chance. There are a couple of restaurants that offer good food and you can enjoy that. The whole lake is worth visiting wholly and that is if you are having time. It takes you about 2hrs to complete a whole round of lake. But there are numerous Khachars available and they take a very less amount for that. If you are curious to get some very good snaps then do visit it as you can find some astounding scenes.

Kaghan Valley is in north west frontier province of Pakistan.It runs parallel from north to south with Swat valley running at its eastern edge and Neelum valley which just runs at its behind the mountains.

Armani Hotel Burj Dubai, United Arab Emirates

Key Data:

Order year                    2004

Project type                  First new hotel in world’s tallest building and first Armani Hotel

Location                       Dubai

Estimated investment    US$8bn

Completion                   Early 2009

Key Players:

Sponsor                  EMAAR Properties, EMAAR Hotels and Resorts Inc,

                              Giorgio Armani SpA, Giorgio Armani Hotels and Resorts

Lead contractors    Skidmore Owings Merrill, Samsung Constructions,

                             Turner Construction International, Armani Hotels and Resorts

Construction          BESIX, Arabtec, Arab Technical Construction Co, ETA M&E,

                            Al Khatib Cracknell, Lerch, Bates & Associates Inc, Bauer Spezialtief GmbH,

                            Middle East Foundations Group L.L.C, PMK International, GHD Pty Ltd,

                            Hyder Consulting Middle East Limited,

Construction         RWDI Anemos Ltd, Otis Elevator Co, Schmidlin AG HQ, DOKA,

                            voestalpine Grobblech GmbH

Financing              EMAAR Properties, EMAAR Hotels and Resorts LLC

Number of rooms  175

ARMANI HOTEL

In a deal forged in 2004, Giorgio Armani S.p.A. and EMAAR Hotels & Resorts LLC agreed to develop a unique series of international 'Armani Hotels and Resorts'. Giorgio Armani S.p.A. has awarded a long-term license to EMAAR Hotel & Resorts LLC for the operation of the hotels and resorts, where EMAAR will be fully responsible for real estate, construction, management and operations.

Giorgio Armani will oversee all aspects of content, design and style, including interiors and amenities, incorporating the various Armani fashion, furnishings and beauty collections.

Giorgio Armani S.p.A. has established an Armani Hotels and Resorts division at its headquarters in Milan, which has been actively developing the design concepts under the close supervision of Giorgio Armani. This will define the look and feel of the hotels and resorts.

ARMANI AT THE BURJ

The first Armani brand hotel is expected to be opened by the first quarter of 2009 and is under construction as part of the Burj Dubai development. The Dubai 'Armani Hotel' will include 175 guest rooms and suites, five restaurants and a spa, covering more than 40,000m². Alongside the hotel, the Burj Dubai will also offer 160 luxury residential apartments all designed by Giorgio Armani and fully furnished with a specially designed line of products from the Armani Casa home furnishings collection.

The schedule of Armani hotel openings to follow Dubai will be Milan, London, and New York along with the first resort. Giorgio Armani said, "This marks the beginning of a new chapter in the Armani story. In this our thirtieth anniversary year, I cannot think of a more energising prospect than bringing my philosophy of style and design to a collection of hotels and resorts.

"Today, more than ever before, fashion has expanded to encompass our way of life, not just how we dress, but where we live, which restaurants we eat at, which car we drive, where we go on holiday and which hotels we stay in.

"I strongly believe that for those people who enjoy the Armani fashion and home furnishings collections there will be a real enthusiasm for the possibility to now stay at an Armani hotel or resort. This continues our ongoing strategy of building the Armani universe into a comprehensive lifestyle brand."

Finding Your Forex Broker

There are many ways to make money online. There are a lot of opportunities that you can grab if you want to earn extra income. In short, there is so much money on the internet. It is just up to you how you are going to use it for your own advantage. One of the most popular means of earning money is through forex trading. It is common knowledge that whenever there is money involved, you can be sure that there are also people who are on the lookout to take advantage of you and your money. So if you are new to this thing, you must be careful.

You will need a broker to trade in financial market. Since forex market is not regulated, you have to be careful in your choice of broker. Below are some helpful tips when you are choosing your broker:

* Stay away from brokers who are hesitant to let you know where they are located. They can get away easily and you do not even know which part of the world they are in.

* There are many broker scams today. Get the necessary details of the broker that you are planning to choose. If they do not give you the information that you need, you might as well keep away from that particular broker.

* Keep in mind that the forex broker you get cannot trade against you. Be very careful. There are many brokers out there who are simply doing that. You must know about this situation to avoid getting fooled.

* Research on the broker that you plan to choose. Do not be in a hurry. Read about the reviews about that particular broker. Ask around. It will not hurt to ask.

* Observe what others think about the broker like how he works and how he trades. You can try to visit his website and find out more about the broker.

* A broker who allows you to trade a hundred dollars might want you to have a big leverage. This is not a good idea. You might end up with a very big loss.

Keeping these tips in mind to find a good forex broker.

Forex Trading Options

Forex trading has become a hugely popular way for people to seek to supplement their incomes or even to get rich. Marketers selling foreign exchange trading information are making a lot of money themselves. Most trading in this market is done by individuals through various online portals over the counter.

However, the financial crisis has demonstrated how OTC markets are riskier than regulated exchanges. Now individual traders can take currency positions through exchange traded options.The International Securities Exchange (ISE) has been offered FX spot options since April 2007.

ISE options are relative to the U.S. dollar. Their prices are quoted in USD relative to the other currency. If the euro is currently worth $1.35, the USD/EUR rate is 1.35 X 100 = 135.

The rate multiplier is always 100, except for USD/JPY which is 1.

ISE FX options are settled in U.S. dollars.

ISE FX options are available through options-enabled securities brokerage accounts.

The available options are: USD/AUD (symbol -- AUX), USD/CAD (symbol -- CDD), USD/CHF (symbol -- SFC), USD/EUR (symbol -- EUI), USD/GBP (symbol -- BPX), and USD/JPY (symbol -- YUK).

The contract size is 10,000 units of the non-USD currency, 1 million in the case of the Japanese yen.

You can buy all of the same kinds of options with ISE FX that you can with stock options, index options and commodity options. Buy calls and puts, sell calls and puts, but on spreads, straddles, strangles, iron condors and butterflies.

If you are a foreign exchange trader not familiar with options, make sure you understand them before you risk your money. Options have their own characteristics, signified by Greek letters: delta, theta, gamma, vega and rho.

One significant factor is time. Options are a decaying asset. When their expiration moment arrives, they're worthless. Many people has lost a lot of money by buying calls on a stock, commodity or index they were sure would go up, because they were right too soon. It went up, but only after their option expired.

And as with all options, you're essentially either selling or buying volatility. You must make a hard-headed calculation about whether the many you're paying or receiving is to your advantage or not. You must make a serious risk/reward calculation.

You can find many FX option pricing calculators, but don't take them as gospel. As with all trading, everybody's expectations are based on past performance, but future performance is never entirely the same.

Take that government-required warning seriously, even though too many government bureaucrats and lawmakers don't.

Most forex options are priced on the basis of historical volatility, but that will change over the course of an option's life. Nobody knows how much. That's the game. If we all knew the future there'd be no need for financial markets.

Important Points Before Opening A Forex Account

Forex or Foreign exchange has been more visible in many business portfolios ever since small investors were given a chance to join in the currency exchange realm. Even with the presence of pressure and the rigors of a day job, numerous traders still aspire to enter and profit from the Forex markets.

There are available Forex accounts that lets you practice your trading skills for 1 month without risk. There are quotes, currency pairs, technical charts and analysis and 24 hour news regarding your account. The amount of the mini practice account is $5,000 while the standard practice account costs $50,000.

The minimum investment in a standard Forex account ranges from $5,000 to $10,000.

There are different types of foreign exchange accounts and most traders keep two or more accounts while trading. These accounts are basically categorized according to how much capital a broker can invest. Generally there are three types of Forex accounts namely:

1. Mini account which is ideal for beginners who have an initial capital of less than $10,000. Basically, one is allowed to engage in Forex with just $250. Mini account can be a good starting point which can build up the confidence of new and less experienced traders in the market. With just a small capital, one should not expect a high profit; nevertheless your money is subject to low risks of loss.

2. Standard account which requires a trader an initial investment of $2,000.

3. Premium accounts with significant amounts of capital required. These accounts can have different trading services and tools for innovation.

With the presence of these kinds of accounts, it is worth pointing out that a good managed Forex account can do miracles in trading. A trader can gain much by choosing a managed account backed up with good track records. Aside from these facts, certain benefits are worth mentioning such as:

• Managed Forex accounts can let a trader participate in trading market without the hassle of monitoring it 24 hours.

• Managed accounts are handled by professionals

• There are managed accounts that are not attached to the stock market, thus assets can be more diversified.

• Greater profit maximization can be possible in both falling and rising markets.

• Assets are liquid and can be withdrawn regularly

• Monthly reports of account are accessible and there is a real time management of account.

Choosing a right account and investing in it poses a risk. It is important therefore to know what steps are to take in order to minimize. Here are the few things to remember when opening a Forex account:

1. In signing up for an account, identification is necessary; this is required by the Federal Law to avoid fraud. A trader will be asked to sign a margin agreement. Prepare the necessary documents and read the agreements thoroughly to avoid confusions.

2. Try the practice or demo account to learn the basics of trading. There are brokers who impulsively leap into trading and quickly lose their money. Take your time and learn how the trading process works.

3. Avoid being emotional while in a trade. Traders should stick to their decisions and not let their emotions control them.

Foreign exchange can be considered as the biggest and most interesting market in the world. Certain individuals, even inexperienced ones get hooked on trading it. Before opening a Forex account, it is but necessary to be knowledgeable in all the aspects involved in trading.

Burj Khalifa Height, Facts & Figures

Bringing Burj Khalifa to life required a combination of visionary ideals and solid science. In the process, the project amassed an awe-inspiring number of facts, figures, and statistics.

World Records

At over 800 metres (2625 feet) and more than 160 stories, Burj Khalifa holds the following records:

• Tallest building in the world

• Tallest free-standing structure in the world

• Highest number of stories in the world

• Highest occupied floor in the world

• Highest outdoor observation deck in the world

• Elevator with the longest travel distance in the world

• Tallest service elevator in the world

Tallest of the Supertall

Not only is Burj Khalifa the world’s tallest building, it has also broken two other impressive records: tallest structure, previously held by the KVLY-TV mast in Blanchard, North Dakota, and tallest free-standing structure, previously held by Toronto’s CN Tower. The Chicago-based Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH) has established 3 criteria to determine what makes a tall building tall. Burj Khalifa wins by far in all three categories.

Height to architectural top

Height is measured from the level of the lowest, significant, open-air, pedestrian entrance to the architectural top of the building. This includes spires, but does not include antennae, signage, flagpoles or other functional-technical equipment. This measurement is the most widely used and is used to define the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat rankings of the Tallest Buildings in the World.

Highest occupied floor

Height is measured from the level of the lowest, significant, open-air, pedestrian entrance to the highest continually occupied floor within the building. Maintenance areas are not included.

Height to tip

Height is measured from the level of the lowest, significant, open-air, pedestrian entrance to the highest point of the building, irrespective of material or function of the highest element. This includes antennae, flagpoles, signage and other functional-technical equipment.

PAKISTAN AT A GLANCE

Formal name: Islamic Republic of Pakistan

Short name: Pakistan

Term of Citizens: Pakistani

Capital: Islamabad

Date of independence:

August 14, 1947

Area: 796,100 square kilometers

Time: GMT+5

Topography: Apart from the irrigated plains of Sindh and Punjab, Pakistan is largely barren mountains and arid plateaus. The three of the world’s greatest mountain ranges, the Hindukush, the Himalayas and the Karakorams dominate in the North. The longest river is Indus (2,896 Kms), which enters into Pakistan through Ladakh and Kashmir.

Climate: Continental characterized by extreme variations of temperature.

Population: 135.28 million in 1998, the ninth largest in the world and rising at 2.7% a year. The rural population is about 80% whereas rest of 20% is urban.

Per capita income: US$ 460.00

Language: Urdu is National language whereas all the provinces have their regional languages as well. English is used extensively in official and commercial circles, Courts of Law and is the medium of instruction for higher education.

Religion: Muslims are about 95% (80% Sunni & 20% Shia), Christians are 02% of the total population whereas rest of the 03% covers Hindus, Sikhs, Parsees, Bahas, Buddhists and tiny group of Kalash living in Chitral Valley.

Education: Compulsory up to 05 years, however, there are about 25 Government Universities for higher education in various modern disciplines besides 10 others being run by the private sector. Literacy rate is 38.9%.

Economy:

Agriculture (Major Crops): Wheat, Cotton, Rice, Millet, Maize, Barley, Pulses, Sugar Cane, Oil seeds, Tobacco

Industry (Major Industries): Cotton Yarn, Textile Manufacture, Light Engineering, Food processing, Cement, Pharmaceuticals, Leather and Rubber.

Energy: Hydro-electric generation, Natural gas and oil

Remittances (Money sent from Abroad): The 1.5 million Pakistanis working abroad send home about US$ 1,500 million dollars annually.

Currencty: Pak. Rupee (PKR)

Ecology: Drinking Water & Pollution are the hot issues.

Health: Basic health facilities are free of charge in Government’s hospitals. Modern hospitals are also available in almost all the major towns.

Culture: Land of ancient and rich culture with lots of historical monuments, traditional handicrafts and enormous variety of foods. People are culturally homogenous

Major cities: Faisalabad, Hyderabad, Islamabad, Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar, Multan, Quetta & Rawalpindi.

Jihad: Looking beyond the myths

What Jihad is:

• The Arabic word Jihad is often translated as holy war, but a more accurate translation is holy struggle. Islamic scholars say the term holy war was actually coined in Europe during the Crusades to mean a war against the Muslims.

• In a purely linguistic sense, the word Jihad means struggling or striving. There are two different, unrelated words which mean war.

• In a religious sense, as described by the Koran and teachings of the Prophet Mohammed, Jihad means striving for the benefit of the community or the restraint of personal sins. It can refer to internal as well as external efforts to be a good Muslim, or believer. Scholars say it primarily refers to efforts to improve oneself.

• Jihad is a religious duty.

• If Jihad is required to protect the faith against others, it can be performed using anything from legal, diplomatic and economic to political means. If there is no peaceful alternative, Islam also allows the use of force, but there are strict rules of engagement. Innocents -- such as women, children, or invalids -- must never be harmed, and any peaceful overtures from the enemy must be accepted.

• Military action is therefore only one means of Jihad, and is very rare. To highlight this point, the Prophet Mohammed told his followers returning from a military campaign: "This day we have returned from the minor Jihad to the major Jihad," which he said meant returning from armed battle to the peaceful battle for self-control and betterment.

• In case military action appears necessary, not everyone can declare Jihad. The religious military campaign has to be declared by a proper authority, advised by scholars, who say the religion and people are under threat and violence is imperative to defend them. The concept of "just war" is very important.

• The concept of Jihad has been hijacked by many political and religious groups over the ages in a bid to justify various forms of violence. In most cases, Islamic splinter groups invoked Jihad to fight against the established Islamic order. Scholars says this misuse of Jihad contradicts Islam.

• Examples of sanctioned military Jihad include the Muslims' defensive battles against the Crusaders in medieval times, and before that some responses by Muslims against Byzantine and Persian attacks during the period of the early Islamic conquests.

What Jihad is not

• Jihad is not a violent concept.

• Jihad is not a declaration of war against other religions. It is worth noting that the Koran specifically refers to Jews and Christians as "people of the book" who should be protected and respected. All three faiths worship the same God. Allah is just the Arabic word for God, and is used by Christian Arabs as well as Muslims.

• Military action in the name of Islam has not been common in the history of Islam. Scholars says most calls for violent Jihad are not sanctioned by Islam.

• Warfare in the name of God is not unique to Islam. Other faiths throughout the world have waged wars with religious justifications.

Source: REUTERS

This article previously appeared in The Times of India on Thursday, November 22, 2001.

Understanding Islam

Muslims now constitute a significant minority in Western countries, most notably France, Britain, Germany, Canada, and the United States. Consequently, those in the West engaged in theological discourse and pastoral work can no longer consign Islam to the outer limits of their universe of religious concerns. Islam is no longer just "over there," an exotic feature of distant cultures; it is a well-established component of our own religious landscape and deserves attention from all who work to further the Reign of God in our culture.

Having taught courses in Islamic civilization as part of the religious studies curriculum at both secular and church-related institutions, I can give ample testimony to the antagonistic images of Islam obtaining in, and actively perpetuated by, many Western circles. In some cases, it is alarmism that fuels the antagonism ("Muslims are taking over the world!"); in others, the indignation of post-modern Westerners who resent the very existence of a powerful religious tradition which seems to foster "unenlightened" values ("Islam is intolerant, it oppresses women, etc."). It is a situation fraught with the real possibility of bigotry and violence.

As "people of religion," we can be particularly effective in shaping religious sentiment toward Muslims in our society. We can either stoke the fires of antagonism, feeding into the dominant societal trend of "demonizing" Islam and Muslims; or we can fight those fires, challenging people to come to a well-informed, balanced appreciation of this "other" in our midst. Most of us, I assume, would affirm the desirability of the latter option. I would like to offer a few suggestions as to how that option might be realized.

First, expose the caricatures -- both our own and those of others. Such caricatures are usually based on the assumption that Islam is monolithic and that Muslim communities are homogeneous. Both assumptions are false. Just as there are many "Christianities," there are many "Islams" and most have very little to do with "Islamism," that militant, extremist fringe of Islam which, despite its claim to "traditionalism," actually violates such perennial Islamic values as tolerance, forbearance, hospitality, and broad-mindedness. A number of excellent resources can help you in this process -- see the attached reading list. All the recommended authors are Christians who have done much to dispel the rampant misinformation concerning Islam.

Second, reflect on what underlies our tendency to caricature Islam. Many in the Christian world have thrown themselves headlong into the process of challenging the traditional shape of our society and want to eradicate the very memory of its "oppressive" structures. Modernity is uncomfortable with the demands of tradition. When Islam presents itself -- unabashedly, unashamedly -- as a traditional religion, i.e., as a religion based on the structures and values of a traditional cultural system, those who are shaped by secular culture wince. They are reminded of what our own communities once affirmed (and in some quarters, still do affirm) to be true and what was once imposed (and in some quarters, still is imposed) as obligatory. Moreover, I think many recognize, even if only reluctantly, that in dismantling the traditional shape of our religious life, in many ways our religious communities have been debilitated. Islam's vitality and self-confidence reminds us of what we have lost. In short, the growing strength of Islamic identity and the resurgence in Islamic practice only serve to underscore the progressive weakening of Christian identity and the steady diminishment of Christian practice in secularized Western societies. We resent Islam's newly found vitality because it draws attention to our present malaise.

Third, appreciate the practical, external expressions of faith that typify Islamic life. We have much to learn in this regard from Islam. A few years ago even Pope John Paul II pointed to the Muslim fast during the month of Ramadan as an example of the kind of zeal and discipline Christians should, but today rarely do, bring to Lenten fasting. Islam also requires regular prayer -- at least five times a day for the observant Muslim. (While at the University of Pittsburgh, I would regularly chance upon a Muslim student in a quiet corner of a library "making salat" on a prayer rug.) How many Christians can claim to set aside time for prayer so regularly? Muslims must give alms (zakat), not just when they feel moved to do so but as a requisite part of their religious practice; year by year they return a certain percentage of their wealth to the community to even up the inequalities that separate the "haves" from the "have nots." Do we feel so obliged to bridge the gap between the rich and the poor in our communities? Islamic life requires pilgrimage, an experience now largely de-emphasized in modern Christian life. It requires bodily acts of worship like bowing and prostrating, gestures often dismissed as archaic to the "sophisticated" modern Christian. In short, for all of our talk of "incarnational" Christianity, we are becoming a religion less and less likely to enflesh our religious sentiments in external expression. We stress thought and emotion over physicality, enforcing a kind of neo-Gnosticism that sees religion primarily as a "spiritual" sentiment, having little to do with bodily performance. This is, I would say, a most unfortunate trend. Islam reminds us of the need for physical religious enactment.

Fourth, highlight the Islamic emphasis on community life and on the individual's accountability to community standards. As Christianity in the Western world becomes more atomized and Christian spirituality more privatized, Islam provides a strong testimony to the power of community. One of my Muslim students once remarked, "Wherever I go, whether in the Islamic world or outside it, even if I cannot find a local community of Muslims, I am always aware that I am part of a worldwide community. This is always at the forefront of my mind. It forges my whole identity. It guides my every action. The umma [Islamic community] gives me strength, and I willingly give it my loyalty." In a culture where commitment to religious community is becoming increasingly rare, and accountability of any sort (whether to a religious tradition or any other "authority") is seen almost as an infringement of personal rights, the communocentric emphasis of Islam can seem somewhat archaic. It should, however, challenge us Christians in particular to revitalize our communal structures, even if that means drawing boundaries between ourselves and "the world," boundaries that have been blurred by encroaching secularization. In re-thinking our definition of religious communities and re-shaping the dynamics of life within them, we can learn some valuable lessons from the Muslim experience.

Fifth, use dialogue with Islam as a way not only to increase our appreciation of the Islamic tradition but also to deepen our appreciation of the distinctive features of our own. Make no mistake about it: despite sizeable areas of "common ground," there is a wide theological chasm between Islam and Christianity. It was largely in reaction to an often distorted presentation of Christian doctrine that Islam formed its own doctrinal heritage. Islamic doctrine challenges us to embrace anew those facets of Christian theology which differentiate us from Muslims -- especially the mystery of the Trinity and the divine Sonship of Christ -- and then to find new and ever more insightful ways of articulating these dogmas. Simple repetition of traditional formulas usually does not suffice to foster greater understanding of Christianity among Muslims (or among Christians, for that matter)! In questioning the central Christian doctrines, Islam serves us well: it requires us to focus specifically on those distinctive beliefs that are constitutive of our view of God and the world and to find more effective ways of proclaiming and explaining them both to those within the "household of Christianity" and to those without.

Sixth, and finally, make personal contact with Muslim communities and individuals. It is much more difficult to caricature people we know than those we keep at a distance. Call the local Islamic center and ask to be put on the mailing list. These centers often sponsor lectures of public interest; attend one and talk to members of the host community. Groups from the mosque and your church may want to exchange visits. Social service programs can provide opportunities for mosque and church to join together in a common cause. The possibilities for such encounters abound and, if realized, usually bear much good fruit.

Conclusion: On their course evaluation forms, two students in my "Introduction to Islamic Civilization" wrote remarks that I found especially gratifying. The first wrote, "When I signed up for this course, I had nothing but disdain for Muslims; now I am actually able to see the beauty of their religion." The other wrote, "Studying Islam has made me better able to see what it means for me to say that I am Christian." These students articulated well what I consider the two main reasons for us to come to an appreciation of Islam. Doing so will enable us not only to affirm this important "other" in our midst and but also to clarify our own identity.

[reprinted from In Communion issue 10, July 1997]

Fr. Theodore Pulcini, a priest of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America, is Assistant Professor of Religion at Dickinson College, Carlisle, PA 17013. His articles have appeared in Diakonia, The Journal of Ecumenical Studies, Church Divinity, Commonweal, and St. Vladimir's Theological Quarterly. His essay is reprinted from New Theology Review.

Recommended reading:

Cragg, Kenneth. The House of Islam. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1975

Denny, Frederick. W. An Introduction to Islam. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan, 1994.

Esposito, John. Islam: The Straight Path. Oxford University Press, 1991.

Haddad, Yvonne Y., ed. The Muslims of America. Oxford University Press, 1991.

and Adair T. Lummis. Islamic Values in the United States: A Comparative Study. Oxford University Press, 1987.

Speight, R. Marston. God Is One: The Way of Islam. New York: Friends Press, 1989.

Stones

Granite:

A course-grained igneous rock, composed chiefly of a mixture of three minerals—quartz (silica dioxide), feldspar (aluminosilicate minerals containing calcium, sodium, or potassium), and mica (hydrous potassium, aluminum silicate minerals). Granite is believed to have solidified from molten rock under pressure, but also evidence of some granite gradually grading into metamorphic rock.

Sandstone:

A sedimentary rock formed by the cementing (consolidation and compaction) together of grains of sand. Characteristics of sandstone varies in materials it contains, the hardness, and can sometimes resemble granite & quartzite.

Quartzite:

A metamorphic rock composed of firmly cemented quartz grains resulting from the metamorphism of pure quartz sandstone.

Marble:

A metamorphic rock formed by alteration of limestone or dolomite crystals by heat and pressure. Used for ornamental purposes, like limestone it is corroded by water and acid fumes and is thus ultimately an uneconomical material for use in exposed places.

Limestone:

A sedimentary rock composed by calcium carbonate. Most limestone's are formed by the deposition and consolidation of the skeletons of marine invertebrates; a few originate in chemical precipitation of solution. Great as a building stone and for ornamentation. In summary, Limestone began as gas in the atmosphere, was scrubbed out by algae, pooped out in deposits, mixed with some dead sea urchins, squeezed real hard—and presto.

Travertine:

A porous or cellular layered, partly crystalline calcium of chemical origin formed by precipitation from generally hot solutions of carbonated spring water, usually at the bottom of shallow pools.

Onyx:

A variety of cryptocrystalline quartz, differing from agate only in that bands of which it is composed are parallel and regular. Onyx was used in Roman times for the fabrication of vases and cups.

Soapstone:

A metamorphic rock composed mostly of the mineral talc, but also containing varying parts of chlorite, mica, trilobite, quartz, magnetite, and iron compounds. A soft soapy feel to the touch.

Slate:

A microcrystalline metamorphic rock most commonly derived from shale and composed mostly of micas, chlorite and quartz.

Natural Stone Finishes:

Polished: having a surface with high gloss.

Honed: having a dull polish or matt surface.

Flamed: a rough textured finish achieved by flaming the surface.